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| waqarabro | Jul 1 2008, 03:31 AM |
Swash-buckling
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Early modern India continued to be marked by the pattern of alternation between larger, inclusive (imperial) states and smaller states or kingdoms based on regional power bases and linguistic/cultural formations. New in this period was a dramatic increase in urbanization and a greater commercialization of agriculture and trade—results of the expanded imperial system, which fostered integration of localities into larger economic networks both within the subcontinent and between South Asia and other imperial centers. Very little speculation has been put forward regarding demographic changes before the 19th century; the regions of greatest population density when censuses began to be taken are presumed to be the same as those during this earlier period as well (with the rice-growing areas of the eastern Gangetic Basin and the east coast having the highest population). The increasing size and number of urban centers established in the early modern period have been presumed to foster as well as absorb the population increases in the subcontinent. Initially in the north and ultimately over much of the South Asian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire emerged in this period to tie India to the larger Islamic world. Beyond economic integration with this larger system, the Mughals encouraged further integration through the opportunities offered to military and administrative elite migrating from Persia and the Arabic areas of the Middle East. Still, faced with the necessity of creating a shared political culture that would tie the immigrant ruling class to indigenous power structures, the Mughals fashioned a new Indo-Persian cultural system that created a shared elite culture focused on the emperor. Particular values—including Indian notions of good rule, Indian aesthetics, and hierarchical conceptualizations of the relationship between community and state—became incorporated within the ruling ethos. At the same time in the south, the Vijayanagara Empire consolidated around a state ideology fashioned from Hindu theories of kingship and new claims to power by soldier-merchant groups. The elaboration of this state made clear the similarities of economic and political processes faced by both the empires. Key to success were the administrative and ideological ties established between the state and its constituent communities; the nature of these ties indicated that while one empire is called Islamic and the other Hindu, the Mughal and Vijayanagara rulers built their respective politico-cultural systems on the basis of many similar cultural assumptions that may be seen as typically South Asian in nature. Toward the end of this period, the imperial systems in both the north and the south began to break apart. Across the subcontinent successor states arose, solidifying political and cultural coherence around regional identities expressed in local vernacular languages and literary works. The political and economic opportunities presented to local elite claimants enabled them to direct cultural patronage to solidify these regional cultures and identities. The ferment provided by the new political formations, and the contestations that naturally accompanied new claims to power, provided a period of great flux and creative reinvention of political forms and legitimations. Into this flux moved a variety of European actors, brought to the subcontinent by their interest in trade and their new organization at home as commercial monopolies (the East India Companies of the English, the Dutch, and the French). These monopolistic enterprises facilitated the financing of ambitious pursuit of trade overseas. Still “bit” players in the unfolding drama, Europeans tried to ally themselves with different Indian princes absorbed by their internecene warfare, hoping to capitalize on the victories won by their allies. By 1500 THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE developed, in its second half, into what is known as the nayaka state-system, in which administrative and political relations differed significantly from what had gone before. While the Vijayanagara rulers continued to hold ultimate power over a broad belt of territory, they shared authority locally with a number of military chiefs, or nayakas. Originally part of the great Telugu migrations southward into the Tamil country in the 15th and 16th centuries, Balija merchant-warriors who claimed these nayaka positions rose to political and cultural power and supported an ethos that emphasized nonascriptive, heroic criteria in legitimizing political power. The Balijas were proud of their Sudra status, in a world previously dominated by a classical Sanskritic varna scheme that insisted that kings had to be Kshatriya (two castes higher than Sudras). The new egalitarian ethos made it easier for claimants from a variety of communities to succeed to political control. 1500s Kaikkolas (weavers) and kanmalas (smiths) increased in power during the 15th and 16th centuries: set privileges were granted to them by nayakas and their subordinate local magnates. Indeed, the diversity of artisan and merchant communities in this period shows the increased importance of these professions in the emerging socioeconomic structure. 1500 Spread of the Sikh faith in Bengal. Founded by Nnak (1469–1538), who merged Hinduism with Muslim egalitarianism. Later turned militant under persecution by the Mughals. 1504 Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur, having annexed Gulbarga, established the Shi'ite form of Islam under state patronage, despite protest from many Sunnis. 1509 The Portuguese, under Francisco de Almeida, at Diu destroyed an Egyptian-Indian fleet that had, in the previous year, defeated a Portuguese squadron at Chaul. 1510 The Portuguese acquired Goa as headquarters, in place of Cochin. 1512 Golconda became independent (till 1687). 1526–37 Bahadur, the last active sultan of the “sultanate state” period, with the aid of Khandesh captured Mandu and annexed Malwa (1531), after which he captured Chitor (1534). To 1550s In the heyday of the Vijayanagara Empire, the center retained full control of the nayaka chiefs, receiving a third of the revenues collected in the territories assigned to the chiefs. The nayakas had only limited lordship over territory and had to maintain from their income armed forces for the king. 1526–1761 (1857) The MUGHAL EMPIRE in India was founded by Babar (1483–1530), descendant of Timur-I Lang in the fifth generation, who had seized Kabul (1504) and Lahore (1524) as compensation for loss of Ferghana and Samarkand. Decisive victory at Panipat over Ibrahim Shah Lodi gave him Delhi and Agra, which he defended in the Battle of Khanwa (1527) against Rana Sanga of Chitor, chief of a Rajput confederacy. 1529 Victory on the Battle of Ghaghra,, where it meets the Ganges, completed conquest of the kingdom of Delhi to the frontier of Bengal. Babar's acts, problems, and personality appeared in his Turki Memoirs, or Baburnama. 1530–56 Humayun drove Bahadur Shah of Gujarat to flight before Chitor and captured Mandu and Champanir (1535) but lost both through a year of inaction. The same fault and treachery of his brothers lost the empire to the nayakas. 1530s–1730s The nayakas established rule at Madurai, longest-lived of the nayaka “little kingdoms.” Also established were two other prominent nayaka centers at Tanjuvur (defeated by the 1670s) and the territory controlled by the Senji Nayakas (defeated by the 1630s, this territory passed first to Bijapur and then to the Mughals). Marked economic change in these territories caused by introduction of new crops, expanded sphere of manufacturing production, and creation of important marketing centers. Revenues collected by the states on agriculture and trade permitted them to build towns and large temple complexes and to develop a new kingly ethos of consumption that altered the philosophical and ideological definitions of kingship, especially in terms of the relationship of the king to the communities of his realm. 1535 The Portuguese secured by treaty Bassein and were allowed to fortify Diu, which they defended against an Ottoman fleet and a Gujarati army (1538). 1539–55 Sur dynasty of the Afghan Sher Shah (1539–45), who had consolidated his power in Bihar and had driven Humayun to seek refuge in Persia, whence he returned precariously to Delhi and Agra (1555). In north India, Sher Shah began administrative experiments that later served as the basis for the Mughal system of governance. 1546 Efforts to expel the Portuguese failed miserably. 1556–1605 AKBAR (b. 1542, personal rule 1562) restored and consolidated the empire throughout northern India. 1556 Guided by Bairam Khan, his guardian (till 1560), he crushed the Afghans at Panipat. 1559 Constantine de Braganza seized Daman. 1561 Conquest of Malwa was effected by the harem party (dominant 1560–62). 1562 Akbar's marriage to a Rajput princess of Amber (mother of Jahangir) and abolition of the jizya tax on non-Muslims (1564) marked a new policy of impartiality and conciliation of subjects. Marriage alliances and taxation policies served as aspects of new cultural system focused on elite loyalty to the emperor who, in turn, reinforced connections to the populace through patronage of various cultural activities. 1565 A coalition of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur Bidar, and Golconda decisively defeated Vijayanagar at Talikota and led to the execution of the rajah. In 1574 Ahmadnagar annexed Berar, which had hindered the allied campaign. 1568 Chitor was taken by Akbar and about 30,000 Rajputs massacred. 1571 A new Mughal capital city at Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, was founded and magnificently built but abandoned on Akbar's death. Architecture became a key strategy in affirming the connection between Mughal rulers and the country; Akbar and his regional governors mounted an aggressive building campaign across expanded territories. 1572–73 Conquest of Gujarat gave Akbar access to the sea, new ideas, and revenues. To defend his conquest he rode 450 miles in 11 days with 3,000 horsemen. Reorganization of administration was begun by (1) resumption to the crown of all lands, hitherto held by officials as temporary assignments but now to be administered and revenues collected directly; (2) establishment of the Mansabdari system, a unified state service of officers arranged in a hierarchy of military (cavalry) rank but performing civil (mainly financial) as well as military functions if required; (3) substitution of a single tax of one-third produce of the land for the traditional levy of one-sixth plus numerous cesses that were now declared abolished; (4) the branding of all horses maintained for government service, to prevent usual fraud. 1576 Bengal was definitely conquered from the Afghans. 1577 Khandesh was induced to submit as first step toward reconquest of the Deccan, actually accomplished only by Aurangzib (1659–1707). 1578 Public debates on religion held at the Mughal court and presided over by Akbar, and instituted for Muslims only in 1575, were thrown open to Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Sabaeans, and Christians. Akbar showed new respect for animal life (Jain ahimsa) and Zoroastrian reverence for the sun, and invited to court from Goa the Portuguese Jesuits Antonio Monserrate and Rodolfo Acquaviva (1579; arr. 1580). These, like later missions (1590, 1595), failed despite a friendly reception. 1582 In spite of revolt that followed a claim to infallibility under Muslim law (1579), the emperor decreed a new Divine Faith much influenced by Sufi practice. The limited support he won for it collapsed at his death. Cultural patronage—including support for translation and illustration of Hindu epics—formed a central strategy in the development of a unique Indo-Persian cultural system. 1589–91 Jamal Khan, minister of Ahmadnagar, an adherent of the Mahdavi heresy that anticipated the advent of the Mahdi (world savior) in A.H. 1000, persecuted both Sunnis and Shi'ites. 1601–4 Prince Salim, later Jahangir, rebelled but was restored to favor. 1603 John Mildenhall, representative of the English East India Company (London Company, founded Dec. 31, 1600), arrived at Agra but secured no concession until 1608. [size=7]Continue[/size] |
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4:45 PM Nov 28
